目录

一、介绍

二、国度治理

圣约代表

旧约

新约

适当的政策

旧约

新约

有机发展

旧约

新约

三、互动的动态

互动的动态

旧约

新约

忠心的试验

旧约

新约

后果

旧约

新约

四、结论

一、介绍

你有没有注意到，跟从基督的人用不同的方式使用大量我们熟悉的说法？ 对「新约」这个词来说，情况肯定如此。每次我们守主餐时，都重复耶稣的话：「这杯是用我血所立的新约。」在全世界，许多地方教会的名字都带有「新约」这个词，但如果你问大多数基督徒，「新约是什么？」可能你问多少人，就会有多少种答案。有时这些差别并不十分重要。但是，正如我们在这一课要看到的，新约的概念大大影响了新约《圣经》作者，以致我们可以说他们的神学是「新约神学」。出于这原因，我们需要尽我们所能的去理解什么是新约。

这是我们学习的新约的国度与圣约这系列的第三课，我们给这一课定的标题是新约，在此课中我们要探索新约《圣经》作者是怎样依靠新约这概念，以此塑造出他们一些最重要的神学观点。

这一课分两大部分。首先我们要看，新约如何构成   上帝国度治理的特征；第二我们要探索，新约如何启示了   上帝与他百姓之间的某种互动动态。让我们首先通过新约来看   上帝的国度治理。

二、国度治理

我们通常翻译为「约」或「圣约」的希伯来文单词是「berith」בְּרִית。在旧约《圣经》希腊文译本七十士译本中，这个希伯来文单词翻译成διαθήκη(diatheke)。διαθήκη这个词也出现在新约《圣经》中，意思就是「约」。这两个词都有「庄严的协议或条约」的意思。我们在《圣经》中看到同辈人之间所立的约，我们也看到君王和他们的臣民，君王和其他君王所立的约。还有   上帝与国家与人立圣约。我们在这一课特别感兴趣的，是   上帝与人立的圣约，特别是他在基督里所立的新约。

很重要的就是要认识到，我们对   上帝在《圣经》中圣约的认识，在二十世纪后半叶取得了其中一个最重要的突破。那时许多学者开始把《圣经》中的圣约与一组古近东文件作比较，这些文件通常被称为「宗主附庸条约」。它们是旧约《圣经》同时期的国际条约。在这些条约中，宗主，就是强大的君王，与附庸，就是在他们权柄之下较小的君王立约，通过这些条约，宗主治理他们自己的帝国。正如我们将看到的，《圣经》圣约和宗主附庸条约之间的相似性向我们清楚的展示，《圣经》中   上帝的圣约正是他治理他国度事物的主要方式。

我们要从三大方面来看   上帝的国度治理。首先，我们要看圣约代表的重要性；第二我们要看   上帝的圣约如何关注   上帝国度的适当政策。第三，我们要指出   上帝如何通过他的圣约政策的有机发展来治理他的国度。让我们首先来看   上帝的圣约代表。

圣约代表

正如我们已经指出的，古代宗主治理他们的国，是通过与较小的王或附庸藩王签订条约。这些附庸代表他们的国民，顺服宗主帝王，治理他们的帝国。   上帝以类似的方式，通过与他拣选代表他圣约子民的人立约，以此治理他的国度。

要明白我们所讲的意思，我们要首先来看   上帝如何在旧约拣选圣约代表,然后我们要看新约的情形。让我们从旧约开始。

旧约

不难看出   上帝在旧约的时期拣选了圣约代表。创世记1-3章和何西阿书6章7节都表明，   上帝与亚当立第一个《圣经》上的圣约。创世记6章18节和创世记9章9到17节讲到   上帝与挪亚立约。在创世记15章和17章，   上帝与亚伯拉罕立约。出埃及记19到24章表明   上帝拣选摩西作为他的圣约代表。最后，如同诗篇89篇,132篇这样的经文指出   上帝与大卫立约。

  上帝立约时，用不同的方式对待这些人，但他们所有人，都是在   上帝天上的审判庭上，代表其他人在   上帝面前接受审判。   上帝与亚当和挪亚立的约，可以被称为是「普遍性的圣约」，因为亚当和挪亚代表   上帝的圣约子民，就是全人类。与亚伯拉罕、摩西、大卫所立的约，可以被描述为「国家性的圣约」。在这些圣约中，这些人代表的圣约子民，是以色列国，以及被接纳进入以色列的外邦人。

知道了旧约《圣经》中圣约代表，现在就让我们来看   上帝如何通过圣约的代表治理新约。

新约

新约《圣经》反复指出基督就是新约代表。   上帝以特别的方式指定他来代表他的教会——每一个   上帝把他们看为是与基督为一体的犹太人和外邦人。我们看希伯来书9章15节：

在比如罗马书8章34节和提摩太前书2章5-6节这样的经文中有类似的教训。

基督是   上帝拣选的圣约的代表，代表教会的元首，这事实可以帮助我们理解新约《圣经》神学其中一个最重要的特点。正如许多解释《圣经》的人已经指出的那样，新约《圣经》神学是以「基督为中心」的。换言之，新约《圣经》神学的每一个方面都与基督他自己和他的作为密切联系在一起。但为什么会是这样？例如，为什么新约《圣经》教导我们必须相信耶稣才能得救？为什么要奉耶稣的名祷告和行善？为什么教会被称为「基督的身体」？答案很明显。基督在新约《圣经》神学发挥这种中心的作用，因为耶和华   上帝通过基督代表全体教会，治理着新约生活的每一个层面。如果看不到新约《圣经》神学的这个特征，就无法看到它其中一个至为关键的特征。

在看到   上帝通过圣约的代表，特别是新约中基督治理他的国度之后，我们就要来看   上帝国度治理的第二个特征：《圣经》中的圣约为《圣经》历史不同时期设立的适当政策。

适当政策

所有古近东宗主附庸条约都有共同的元素，但在许多方面它们也互不相同。这是因为每一个单独的条约，都在处理具体的问题，是与每一种国际关系贴切的。与这非常相似的就是，所有   上帝的圣约都有许多共同点，但每一个圣约的政策设立，都是针对《圣经》历史不同阶段中重要的具体问题。

要了解   上帝的圣约政策如何对于不同历史阶段来说是适当，我们就要再次来看旧约里的圣约，然后要看新约的政策。让我们首先来看旧约里圣约政策。

旧约

粗略看旧约圣约的条款就可以让人看到，它们是聚焦在那些与   上帝国度具体阶段相切合的政策上的。

  上帝与亚当所立的约，可以被正确称为是「根基之约」。它强调   上帝国度的目标，以及在罪进入世界之前和之后，人类在他国度中发挥的作用。

在大洪水之后，   上帝与挪亚立约。我们可以把这称为「稳定之约」。这约聚焦在大自然的稳定性上，   上帝让它成为一个安全的环境，在当中有罪的人类可以服务   上帝国度的目的。

我们可以把亚伯拉罕的约称为「以色列蒙拣选之约」，它关注   上帝的选民以色列拥有的特权和责任。

与摩西所立的约通常被称为是「律法之约」，因为它聚焦   上帝把以色列的各支派结合成为一国时   上帝的律法。   上帝使用这圣约，带领以色列民进入给他们的应许之地。

最后我们可以把大卫的约看作是「王权之约」。这圣约建立以色列，使它成为一个合法的帝国，强调大卫的王朝要如何带领以色列来服务   上帝的国度。

我们来看在旧约中由圣约制订的适当政策，就会发现新约也确立了国度的政策，是与新约时代相适应的，这就不应当让我们感到奇怪了。

新约

新约是在《圣经》历史最后时期出现，在   上帝与亚当、挪亚、亚伯拉罕、摩西和大卫立约之后出现。出于这原因，新约可以被说成是「成全之约」。作为应验之约，它设立的政策，就是为了逆转过往的失败，成全或应验   上帝在基督里国度的目的。

《圣经》第一次提到新约，是在耶利米书31章31节，在当中我们看到：

在这一节经文更大的上下文处境中，「日子将到」这句话指的是以色列被掳结束之后。正如我们在上一课看到的，基督教宣告的好消息——或福音——就是   上帝的国度要在以色列被掳结束之后得到最终、世界范围的胜利。所以，从《圣经》第一次提到新约开始，我们就看到它是与   上帝国度得胜的应验联系在一起的。

出于这原因，   上帝在耶利米书31章33-34节启示了新约的政策——这些政策对在基督里国度的这个最后世代来说是适当的。请听   上帝是怎样说的：

请留意这段经文说，新约要把   上帝的国度带到最终极的结束。在那时候，「   上帝要赦免他百姓的罪孽，不再记念他们的罪恶。」在这最后的、永远祝福   上帝百姓的时期，「他要将他的律法放在他们里面，写在他们心上。」实际上，   上帝应许新约中每一个人都是如此，正如他所说的：「他们从最小的，到至大的，都必认识我。」

比方在申命记10章16节，耶利米书4章4节这样的经文中，   上帝经常呼吁以色列民要超越外在与他圣约的联系，进入到他们内心受割礼的地步。换言之，他们应当把他的律法写在心里，以此来深深爱   上帝。但是在新约时代的政策中，   上帝应许要以如此的方式实行干预，以至于对于他所有的圣约子民来说，这都要成为现实。

正如我们在上一课看到的那样，耶稣教导说，新约时代要分三个时间段展现。首先，随着基督第一次降临，它的开启阶段，基督实现新约许多，但并不是所有的期望。然后是延续阶段，新约时期要贯穿教会历史延续一段人不能确定的时间。在这阶段，耶稣要实现更多、但仍然不是全部的新约期望。最后，在基督再来的时候，新约时代要达到它完满的阶段，那时每一个期望都要完全得到实现。

新约这三阶段的成全，要帮助我们看到新约神学的第二个基本特征。新约神学不仅仅是以基督为中心，也是随着新约在这三阶段的展开，专注于解释新约的各样政策。

实际上，新约《圣经》作者需要花时间调整对新约生活的期望。例如，与耶利米书31章带来的期望不一样，像马太福音6章12节，约翰一书1章9节这样的经文，解释了跟从基督的人仍然需要求   上帝赦免，因为他们仍然违反   上帝的律法。我们也在正如哥林多后书11章13节，加拉太书2章4节这样的经文中，看到在新约教会中间仍然有真信徒和假信徒。这些和其它因素，是怎样受到新约政策展现的影响？新约神学的每一个层面，都是用这种或那种方式专注于回答这问题。

我们已经看了   上帝是如何通过圣约的代表，以及在历史上的适当政策来治理他的国度。我们现在就要来探索在《圣经》圣约中政策的有机发展。

有机发展

我们讲到圣约政策的有机发展时，就会想起一棵树的生长。一棵树随着它从种子生长到完全成熟，是在不断变化，但仍然是同一个有机体。我们可以用差不多同样的方式来看旧约中的圣约。旧约每一个圣约都有不同的圣约代表，关注的是对历史某一特定时期来说适当的政策。但就像一棵树一样，虽然有这些改变，但仍是有机的统一。

我们现在首先来看旧约中   上帝圣约的有机发展，然后我们要看从旧约到新约的有机发展。让我们首先来看旧约中的圣约。

旧约

我们若记住，贯穿旧约历史，圣约的政策如何继续生效，这样我们就能看到旧约中圣约的有机发展。例如，从亚当的时候开始，   上帝就确立了按他形象样式受造的人类，要在全地扩展他的国度。这政策随着时间有发展，但从来没有被彻底废除。

从挪亚的时候开始，   上帝确定了自然的稳定，让它成为一个安全的环境，让具有   上帝的形象样式，却堕落的人在当中服事他国度的目的。在后来的圣约中，这种治理政策以不同方式有所改变，但   上帝从未将它彻底废除。

从亚伯拉罕的时候开始，   上帝就赋予他的选民以色列特别的特权和责任。这种在历史中的特别角色，随着更多的圣约加入而发展，但从来没有从   上帝的国度治理中消失。

从摩西的时候开始，律法就成为以色列的指引，随着其他圣约加入，这律法要以不同方式加以应用，但从来没有被废去。

从大卫的时候开始，大卫的王朝就已经带领   上帝的百姓来服侍   上帝的国度。虽然这种领导角色随着新约和耶稣作王有所改变，但它并没有被废除。

我们在旧约看到的有机发展模式，在基督的新约里继续存在。新约也是从之前各个圣约有机发展而来的。

新约

让我们再来看耶利米书31章31节。   上帝说：

太过经常的是，基督徒已经把「新约」这说法理解为是指一个全新、与《圣经》中之前的圣约没有联系的圣约。但很重要的就是要认识到，翻译为「新」的这个希伯来文单词חָדַשׁ(châdash / khaw-dash' /)的意思。比方在以赛亚书61章4节，以西结书36章26节，约伯记29章20节这样的经文中清楚表明，这个词，连同与它有关的动词形式，意思并不是「全新」。这一词族的意思而是「更新」，「翻新」，「重建」或「焕然一新」。

这种观点得到这个事实支持，就是   上帝说他要与「以色列家和犹大家」立这新约。换言之，这新约是在以色列被掳结束之后，与亚伯拉罕的后裔，以及被接纳进入亚伯拉罕家的外邦人更新的圣约。

当然，就像之前每一个旧约圣约一样，这新约确立了切合它在历史中所处位置的政策。这些新政策通过基督，通过他的使徒和先知启示出来。但是与每一个旧约圣约一样，这新约更新、重建、翻新、刷新了   上帝在之前圣约中确定的政策。

旧约中多个圣约和新约之间的这些有机发展，给了我们第三个至关重要的看见，帮助我们认识新约神学。除了是以基督为中心，关注在切合于基督国度三阶段展现的政策以外，新约神学也是建立在旧约神学之上。

新约《圣经》的核心，并不是一套新的信仰。新约《圣经》作者而是鉴于   上帝在基督里的启示，应用旧约《圣经》的教导。这就是为什么新约《圣经》相对而言篇幅较短的原因。它认定了旧约《圣经》的有效约束性。这也解释了为什么新约《圣经》作者数百次诉诸于旧约《圣经》，用旧约《圣经》来支持他们的神学观点。所以当我们说新约《圣经》的神学是新约神学的时候，我们的意思并不是说它或多或少与旧约《圣经》抽离。相反新约《圣经》神学的每一个层面都融合了旧约《圣经》的神学，并且是根据旧约《圣经》的神学进行建造。

在我们论述新约的这一课，到目前为止我们已经探索了   上帝的国度治理。现在我们要来看这一课的第二大主题：在新约中   上帝和他百姓的互动动态。

三、互动动态

新约《圣经》作者用数不尽的方式来描写   上帝和他圣约子民之间的互动。他们既谈   上帝的恩典，也讲他的忿怒。他们呼吁人顺服，警告悖逆的人。他们描写   上帝保护一些人脱离伤害，也呼召其他人受苦。这些和许多其他直接或间接指向   上帝与他百姓之间互动的地方，引发出一些重要问题。有什么样的神学观点作为这些多样互动的基础？新约《圣经》作者如何看待这一切？他们怎样来看   上帝与人之间的互动动态？

再一次我们要从古近东地区的宗主附庸条约这背景开始。普遍而言，这些条约聚焦强大的君王和较小君王之间互动的三个特征。首先，更大的君王总是宣称，他们向他们的附庸显出恩慈。第二，更大的君王确定某些方法，要附庸证明他们对自己忠心。第三，更大的君王说明祝福和咒诅的后果，附庸顺服或悖逆，相应就要承受的这些后果。在这里我们需要说明，更大的君王总是保留着权利，可以按照他们看为合适的方式来执行这些条约的规定。但普遍而言，恩慈、忠心和后果，构成了规范这些条约关系的基本原则。

正如我们将要看到的一样，同样的元素出现在《圣经》圣约中   上帝与人互动的动态当中。我们需要记住，作为至高的君王，   上帝是决定他的圣约动态要以怎样的方式产生结果的那一位。他是按照他那无可比拟的智慧，而不是按照人期望的标准来做成这件事，这就是为什么《圣经》解释说，   上帝与他百姓的互动常常是过于人所能理解的原因。但是，如同申命记29章29节，以赛亚书55章8到9节，一些诗篇，整本约伯记和传道书提醒我们的那样，   上帝用来实施这些圣约动态的方法总是良善，充满智慧。

我们探索   上帝和人之间的互动动态，首先要留意   上帝对他百姓那   上帝的恩慈；第二，我们要看《圣经》上的圣约，是如何包括对   上帝圣约子民忠心的试验；第三我们要来看，因着顺服和悖逆，导致祝福和咒诅的后果。让我们首先来看   上帝的恩慈。

   上帝的恩慈

我们要在旧约圣约，以及新约中看   上帝的恩慈这要素。让我们首先来看在旧约圣约当中   上帝的恩慈。

旧约

旧约《圣经》讲得非常清楚，   上帝的良善或恩慈，既是开启也是维系着由他圣约建立的关系。在开始的时候，   上帝在根基之约中，向他圣约的代表亚当显出   上帝的恩慈。在亚当堕落犯罪之前，   上帝创造伊甸园，把按他形象样式造的亚当放在园中，以此向亚当显出他的恩慈。我们第一对先祖亚当和夏娃堕落犯罪之后，   上帝也把得救恩典厚厚地浇灌在他们身上。另外，亚当在   上帝的审判庭上代表全人类，就这样   上帝对亚当显明的恩慈，是传递给他代表的圣约子民的。   上帝以一种或另一种方式，继续向所有人，包括不信的人显出普遍恩典。对于真正相信的人，比如亚伯、塞特和其他许多人，   上帝也显出得救恩典。

在稳定之约中，作为   上帝的圣约代表，挪亚贯穿一生也领受了   上帝的恩慈——既有普遍恩典，也有使人得救的恩典。正如在亚当之约中一样，   上帝向挪亚显出的恩慈，也是传递给他代表的圣约子民全人类的。   上帝以不同的方式，向所有人显出他的普遍恩典。对于真正相信的人，特别是闪的后裔，   上帝也彰显出得救恩典。

在以色列蒙拣选的圣约中，作为   上帝的圣约代表，亚伯拉罕也经历了   上帝的恩慈,就是普遍的恩典和得救的恩典。   上帝向亚伯拉罕显明的恩慈，也是显给他所代表的圣约子民，就是以色列民，以及那些被收纳进入以色列的外邦人的。   上帝以他看为合适的方法，向这圣约中的人，包括像以扫这样不信的人显出普遍恩典。但   上帝也把得救恩典厚厚地浇灌在如雅各、约瑟和许多其他相信之人身上一样。

正如摩西的生平故事告诉我们那样，在律法之约中，   上帝以独特的方式向圣约的代表摩西显出   上帝的恩慈，包括普遍的恩典和得救恩典。   上帝向摩西显出的恩慈，也是传递给他代表的人，就是以色列民和那些被接纳进入以色列的人的。所有以色列人都从   上帝的普遍恩典得益，就连那些没有得救信心的人也是如此。   上帝也向以色列当中许多人，以及被收纳进入以色列的外邦人显出他得救恩典。

最后，大卫作为在王权之约中   上帝拣选的圣约的代表，以独特的方式领受了普遍和得救恩典，彰显   上帝的恩慈。   上帝向大卫显明恩慈，传递给他所代表的圣约子民：他的王子王孙，以色列民和所有被接纳进入以色列的外邦人。按照   上帝无法测透的智慧，他们都经历了普遍恩典，以色列中不信的人也是如此；但以色列中真正相信的人，也领受了   上帝得救恩典。

贯穿旧约中的圣约，   上帝彰显了对他百姓的恩慈，同时这也为   上帝恩慈如何影响新约的动态铺设了舞台。

新约

首先，新约《圣经》让人关注   上帝对新约的代表基督的恩慈。我们应当很清楚知道，像堕落犯罪之前的亚当那样，耶稣从来不需要从   上帝而来的怜悯、饶恕或得救恩典。即使如此，如同马太福音3章16，17节，马太福音12章18节，路加福音3章22节这样的经文表明，在他国度开启的时候，圣父用他的灵膏抹耶稣，加给他能力，使他可以服侍。实际上，按照罗马书8章11节的说法，靠着圣灵的能力，圣父使耶稣从死里复活。而且按照诗篇2篇4-6节，马太福音28章18节，以及使徒行传2章31到33节，在他国度延续期间，圣父对耶稣的恩慈，把他升到目前具有掌管天地的权柄与大能的地位。这种恩慈要在他国度完满的时候，带给基督所要领受的至尊特权和荣耀。

    第二，新约《圣经》也聚焦在基督教神学家经常称之为的「与基督联合」这个议题上。这种教导清楚表明，   上帝对基督的恩慈也冲击着教会，就是他所代表的圣约子民。

信徒与基督的联合是两方面的。一方面我们是「在基督里」，这意味着因为基督是我们圣约的代表，新约的人就是在   上帝天上的审判庭上被看作是与基督为一。所以在许多方面，基督怎样，   上帝看他在   上帝审判天庭上代表的人也和他一样。这就是保罗在以弗所书1章13节说这番话的意思：

但另一方面，新约《圣经》不仅仅是讲到信徒「在基督里」，也讲到「基督在我们里」。就是说在我们每天地上的经历中，基督通过圣灵存在于信徒里面，在信徒里面动工。请听罗马书8章10-11节是怎样讲的:

正如这段经文表明的，虽然新约《圣经》作者承认，教会在天上是与基督为一，但他们也知道，新约时代还没有达到完满。结果就是现在的新约时代生活，与基督再来时会不一样。例如，现在   上帝的新约圣约子民仍会犯罪，而且假信徒——那些没有得救信心的人——还与真信徒一并留在有形教会当中。基督在我们里面的工作，只有在完满的时候才会彻底完成。

出于这原因，新约《圣经》教导在基督再来之前，   上帝向有形教会中的所有人，包括假信徒，显出普遍的恩典。实际上，像约翰福音15章1-6节，希伯来书6章4-6节这样经文，说明虽然不信的人会经常经历到从   上帝而来极大的、暂时性的怜悯，他们却没有领受以致得救的恩典。但是与此同时，即便是在现在，   上帝已经向真正相信的人显出了得救的恩典。那么，新约神学的每个方面，都是从   上帝的恩慈的这个角度加以阐述，这就并不令人感到惊奇了。

正如保罗在以弗所书2章8节所说：

我们已经看到，   上帝和他百姓之间的互动动态，是如何展现出   上帝的恩慈，我们现在应当来看，与   上帝立约的生活，如何也带来对忠心的试验。这些对顺服的要求，显示出那些与   上帝立约之人内心的光景。

忠心的试验

我们在这里应当提到这一点，就是在二十世纪许多学者开始把《圣经》里的圣约，与另外一类通常称为「君王敕令」的古近东文本作比较。在这些敕令中，一位宗主赋予附庸或臣民各样利益。早期的研究让许多人得出结论，那些领受敕令的人，并没有领受义务或要求，并不需要经受对忠心的试验。因此一些解释《圣经》的人认为，《圣经》里的一些圣约并不要求   上帝的百姓表现出忠心。但更近期的研究指向相反的方向。我们现在知道，就连王的敕令也要求领受的人效忠于王。所以当《圣经》告诉我们，   上帝是在每一个《圣经》的圣约，包括新约中试验百姓的忠诚，对此我们就不应当感到奇怪。

我们说，新约生活的一部分，就是   上帝试验我们的忠心，对此我们需要避免一些严重误解。首先贯穿《圣经》，没有一个罪人能靠好行为赢取救恩；靠自己努力领受   上帝永远祝福所需的完全，是我们绝对达不到的。第二，我们所行的每一样善行，都是靠着   上帝的恩典在我们里面动工才能做成。没有了   上帝的怜悯和他圣灵的能力，我们就不能做出任何善行。第三，我们仍需要认识到，   上帝总是呼吁他的圣约子民顺服。无论在旧约还是新约《圣经》中，   上帝通过他的百姓对他诸般诫命的回应，来试验或验证他们内心的真正光景。

要明白我们讲的意思，就要来总结一下，在旧约的圣约，忠心的试验是如何进行的。然后我们要看新约中   上帝对人忠心的试验。让我们先从旧约开始。

旧约

每一个熟悉《圣经》的人都知道，   上帝通过在伊甸园颁布的命令，试验他的圣约的代表亚当。我们也知道   上帝要求他在亚当里的圣约子民，就是全人类要有忠心。

在洪水之前和之后，   上帝也是通过他的命令试验他圣约的代表挪亚。《圣经》表明   上帝继续试验在挪亚里他圣约子民，再一次，试验全人类的心思。

亚伯拉罕人生的经历，说明了   上帝是如何用不同方法试验这位列祖，也是他圣约的代表的忠心。我们只举一个例子，创世记22章1-19节明确告诉我们，   上帝命令亚伯拉罕献上他的儿子以撒为祭时，就是在试验他。在创世记22章12节，耶和华的使者对亚伯拉罕说：

我们在这节经文可以看到，   上帝为什么命令亚伯拉罕。   上帝试验他，为的是要证明他内心真正的光景。

《圣经》用类似的方式教导说，   上帝试验在亚伯拉罕里他的圣约子民 ，就是以色列人和被接纳进入以色列的外邦人的忠心。

摩西作为以色列圣约的代表，一生都受到   上帝命令的试验。并且   上帝明确解释说，他赋予他的圣约子民以色列律法，以此试验他们。请听申命记8章2节，摩西对百姓说：

大卫的人生故事，几乎是用同样方式表明，   上帝试验大卫，就是作为以色列身为君王的圣约代表的忠心。正如旧约《圣经》其余部分反复举例说明的那样，   上帝继续试验历世历代他的圣约子民，就是大卫的子孙和以色列民的忠心。

在讲了   上帝在旧约圣约中试验忠心后,现在让我们来看一看   上帝如何在新约试验他百姓的忠心。

新约

正如我们已经看到的，   上帝的恩典已经在新约中浇灌下来，远超《圣经》历史之前任何阶段。然而很明显的也是，新约有无数从   上帝而来的命令和指示，为什么会这样？正如在旧约中的圣约一样，新约也要求试验人的忠心。

为此缘故，新约《圣经》极其关注那位新的圣约代表基督的忠心。新约《圣经》告诉我们，在国度开启阶段，耶稣通过了   上帝要求他每一样的忠心试验。我们在希伯来书4章15节看到：

请听保罗在腓立比书2章8节是如何提到基督了不起的顺服：

在新约《圣经》神学中，耶稣忠心服事   上帝的高峰，就是他在十字架上自愿的死。但是为什么这顺服的举动具有如此重大的意义？

从罪进入世界那时候开始，   上帝通过动物祭物的血，为他圣约子民的罪提供了暂时的解决之道。但正如希伯来书10章1到14节教导的，这些献祭并不能带来   上帝得胜国度那最终和永远的赦免。所以，当以色列被掳临近的时候，   上帝在以赛亚书53章1到12节启示说，他要求以耶和华的仆人，就是弥赛亚自愿之死，作为为他百姓的罪献上的赎罪祭。通过他的死，这位身为君王的圣约代表，要把   上帝的百姓带进他永远得胜国度的荣耀里。在这国度开启的时候，耶稣自愿在十字架上顺服以至于死，应验了这角色。我们在马太福音8章17节，使徒行传8章32-33节，罗马书6章10节，以及彼得前书2章22-25节，这样的经文里看到这一点。耶稣作为新约的代表经受住这种忠心的试验，就为所有相信他的人提供了永远的赎罪和永远的赦免。

除了耶稣在十字架上的死，如同希伯来书8章1到2节这样的经文也指出，基督作为大卫的子孙，贯穿他国度延续的阶段，在天上顺服服侍。哥林多前书15章24节教导说，基督在国度完满时在荣耀中再来，他要把国度交给父   上帝，以此作为他谦卑的服侍。

新约《圣经》神学格外地强调基督作为新的圣约代表完全的忠心。它也强调对新约的圣约子民，就是教会忠心的试验依然会继续。

再一次我们从基督与教会联合的角度来理解试验教会忠心的问题，这会对我们有所帮助。一方面教会是「在基督里」，意思就是我们在   上帝的天庭上是与基督合为一的。按照提摩太前书3章16节，基督是完全经受住忠心试验的那一位，当圣灵使他从死里复活时，这就证明了他的无罪。出于这原因，如同罗马书4章23到25节这样的经文教导说，在天庭上律法证明基督为义，这义是归算给所有在他里面有得救信心的人的。在基督里，真正相信的人受审判就像那些已经经受住试验的人一样，因为基督已经代表我们通过了这试验。这奇妙的关于基督在   上帝天庭上为义的真理，是更正教神学家称之为「sola fide唯独信心」，或唯独因信称义的新约《圣经》的神学观念的基础。

但另一方面，与基督联合也是指基督在我们里天天的经历。只要教会在基督荣耀中再来之前仍然要在地上存在，教会里的百姓就要经历对忠心的试验，证明他们内心的光景。基督的灵要在真信徒里面动工，使我们成为圣洁。我们与基督联合的这方面，对应的是传统更正教成圣的教义，或渐进地追求圣洁的教义。《圣经》教导说，试验是   上帝推动我们在成圣过程中前进的方法。正如雅各书1章2-3节所说：

再一次，我们必须记住，在基督国度开启和延续的过程中，有形教会既包括假信徒，也包含真信徒。这两群人借着忠心的试验，显露出他们是否有得救的信心。假信徒不能通过忠心的试验，不愿服侍基督。与之形成对比的真信徒，虽然今生无法完全，却要靠着圣灵的大能，在他们对基督尽忠的过程中坚忍。正如我们在约翰一书2章19节关于假信徒的经文看到的：

正如这段经文表明，新约《圣经》的神学包含有从   上帝而来的许多命令，是对忠心的试验，证明那些人是「属于」真信徒的群体。

我们已经看了在新约中与   上帝的恩慈和对忠心的试验有关的互动动态，现在就要来看第三个要素。让我们来查看顺服和悖逆带来的祝福和咒诅的后果。

后果

我们要按照之前讨论的方法，来看在与   上帝立圣约中顺服和悖逆的后果。我们要简单来纵览旧约中的圣约，然后要来看新约。让我们首先来看旧约圣约中祝福和咒诅的后果。

旧约

在新约之前，祝福和咒诅的后果是   上帝与他圣约的代表，以及作为一个他整体圣约子民互动的至关重要的层面。正如我们已经提到的，   上帝经常用超过人能理解的方式来施行他圣约的条件。所以在《圣经》中，   上帝经常加快、增加、减少、推迟、甚至取消他圣约的祝福和咒诅，他这样做的时间和方式，都是超过人能理解的范围，但总是按他完全的智慧和恩慈行事。

在根基之约中，   上帝咒诅他圣约的代表亚当，用受苦和死回应他的悖逆。但我们也看到   上帝对亚当的祝福。在创世记载3章15节，   上帝应许人类要战胜蛇的后裔。按照   上帝看为恰当的方式，他把这死的咒诅和得胜的盼望传递给亚当代表的圣约子民，就是全人类。

在自然稳定之约中，圣约的代表挪亚，因着忠心服侍得到祝福，但也继续要面对咒诅，例如洪水之后家里出现的麻烦。类似的祝福和咒诅临到人类将来的世代，就是挪亚代表的圣约子民。

在拣选以色列之约中，亚伯拉罕作为   上帝的圣约代表，也领受了祝福和咒诅的后果。这些后果传递给圣约子民，就是后来的世代的以色列人和那些被收纳进入以色列的人。

类似，在律法之约中，作为圣约的代表，摩西一生领受了   上帝的祝福和咒诅。另外摩西律法也列出了许多具体的祝福和咒诅，要临到圣约子民，就是以色列人和被接纳进入以色列的外邦人。

在王权之约中，大卫本人作为圣约的代表，按照忠心或不忠，领受祝福和咒诅的后果。对于他所代表的圣约子民，就是他的王室后裔和以色列人、被接纳进入以色列的外邦人，情况也是如此。

我们已经简单讲了旧约圣约中祝福和咒诅的后果。这些为新约《圣经》作者教导的，与基督里的新约相关的顺服和悖逆的后果铺设了舞台。

新约

新约《圣经》神学强调，基督作为新约的代表，经历了   上帝的咒诅和   上帝的祝福。正如保罗在加拉太书3章13节指出的那样，耶稣在十字架上受死的时候，为所有相信他的人承受了   上帝对罪发出的咒诅。

耶稣并不是因为他自己的失败而落在   上帝的咒诅之下。他自己没有罪，但是为了应验以赛亚书53章1-12节，他作为一位无罪的王者，却代替历世历代   上帝的百姓，背负了   上帝的审判。但与之对比的是，基督因着他自己个人的义，也领受了   上帝的祝福。耶稣是唯一一个完全事奉   上帝，配得   上帝永远祝福赏赐的人。

请听在腓立比书2章8-9节中，基督的顺服和   上帝的祝福之间的关系：

在新约《圣经》的神学中，耶稣在国度开启时的复活和升天，是对他完全顺服   上帝的公义赏赐。耶稣贯穿他国度延续期间，享有   上帝的祝福。坐在父   上帝的右边，统治整个受造界。他要在他国度完满的时候，领受更多祝福，那时他要领受他永远的基业，就是统治新的创造界。

正如新约《圣经》神学赞美耶稣得到统治整个受造界的祝福，同样我们也知道，新约的后果也冲击这教会，就是新约的百姓。

再一次，新约《圣经》与基督联合的教义指出这事实的两方面。一方面，因为我们是在基督里，   上帝每一样永远的祝福已经归于真正相信的人。真正相信的人能带着信心安息在这事实中，就是他们绝不会经历   上帝永远的咒诅。他们永远的祝福是稳固的，因为基督是他们圣约的代表。

保罗在以弗所书1章3节写下了他著名的颂赞时，心里想的就是这观念：

因为我们现在就在天上是与基督联合为一，真正相信的人就已经领受了「各样属灵的福气」，正如基督代表我们背负了   上帝永远的咒诅，他也代表我们从父领受了永远祝福的赏赐。

但另一个方面，我们与基督的联合也意味着基督在我们里面，就是说，他在真正相信的人里面动工，让他们在每天生活中经历顺服和悖逆的后果。

再一次我们必须记住，直到基督在荣耀中再来，有形的教会仍包括假信的人和真正相信的人，新约《圣经》神学解释了祝福和咒诅的后果，如何在今生和在永恒施加在这两群人身上。

如同路加福音12章45-46节，罗马书2章4-5节的经文，解释了假信的人继续悖逆   上帝，他们在今生领受的祝福，要在最后审判的时候加重   上帝永远的咒诅。他们在今生忍受的痛苦和咒诅，只不过是那预先尝到基督再来时要领受的永远咒诅的滋味而已。

与之形成对比的是，真正相信的人也在今生领受祝福和咒诅，但真正相信的人在今生领受的祝福，是预先尝到国度完满时临到的永远祝福的滋味。对于真正相信的人来说，像希伯来书12章1-11节的经文告诉我们，暂时的苦难或咒诅，是   上帝充满爱心像父亲一样的管教，而这些苦难使我们分别为圣，增加在基督再来时候我们要领受的永远祝福。正如我们在启示录21章6-8节看到的   上帝的话：

在那一天，新约教会中假信的人要被定罪，永远受审判，但真正相信的人要在充满荣耀的新创造界中得到永远的基业。

四、结论

这一课讲的是在基督里的新约，我们已经思想了   上帝的国度治理，看到   上帝如何通过他的圣约代表治理他的国度，以及随着他的圣约有机发展，如何建立适当的政策。我们也探索了   上帝和他圣约子民之间的互动动态，是如何涉及他身为   上帝的恩慈，他对忠心的试验，以及顺服和悖逆的后果。

我们努力要更完全认识新约《圣经》的时候，必须记住在基督里的新约，并不仅仅是新约《圣经》神学一个小小部分。作为   上帝与他百姓所立的最后一个圣约，新约深深影响着新约《圣经》作者所写的一切。通过新约，   上帝与他百姓在基督里庄严立约。为此我们越好地认识这个新约，就越能看到新约《圣经》神学中最重要的那些特征。

Kingdom and Covenant in the New Testament: The New Covenant

INTRODUCTION

Have you ever noticed how followers of Christ use a lot of familiar expressions in different ways? This was certainly the case with the words "new covenant." We repeat what Jesus said — "This cup is the new covenant" — every time we observe the Lord's Supper. And all over the world, local churches have names with the words "new covenant" in them. But if you ask most Christians, "What is the new covenant?" you get about as many answers as the number of people you ask. Sometimes differences like this don't matter much. But as we'll see in this lesson, the concept of the new covenant influenced New Testament authors so much that we may speak of their theology as "new covenant theology." And for this reason, we need to do all we can to understand what the new covenant is.

This is the third lesson in our series Kingdom and Covenant in the New Testament. We've entitled this lesson, "The New Covenant." And in this lesson we'll explore how New Testament authors relied on the concept of the new covenant to shape some of their most significant theological perspectives.

Our lesson will divide into two main parts. First, we'll see how the new covenant characterized God's kingdom administration. Second, we'll explore how the new covenant reveals certain dynamics of interaction between God and his people. Let's look first at God's kingdom administration through the new covenant.

KINGDOM ADMINISTRATION

The Hebrew term we normally translate as "covenant" is "berith." In the Septuagint, the Greek Old Testament, this Hebrew word is translated "diatheke." "Diatheke" also appears for "covenant" in the New Testament. Both berith and diatheke have connotations of "a solemn agreement or pact." In the Bible, we see covenants between peers. We also see covenants between kings and their citizens and between kings and other kings. And God covenanted with nations and people. In this lesson, we're particularly interested in God's covenants with people, especially his new covenant in Christ.

It's important to know that one of the most significant breakthroughs in our understanding of God's biblical covenants took place in the second half of the twentieth century. At this time, many scholars began to compare biblical covenants with a group of ancient Near Eastern documents usually called "suzerain-vassal treaties." These documents were international treaties among nations in Old Testament times. In these treaties, suzerains, or great kings, administered their kingdoms through treaties with vassals, or lesser kings under their authority. As we'll see, the similarities between biblical covenants and these suzerain-vassal treaties make it clear that God's covenants in Scripture were his primary means for administering the affairs of his kingdom.

We see in the Old Testament, especially in the book of Genesis, two different types of treaties exhibited in Scripture. First, we see what we call a "parity treaty" between two people of equal ability, equal authority in which they make an agreement that is mutually beneficial to both. So take for example Abraham and Abimelech… The second kind of treaty that we see is actually between what some people in the ancient Near Eastern called the "suzerainty-vassal treaty," and that's usually between unequal powers, one who is stronger and greater, who most likely has already overtaken you and conquered you and would now like to be in a relationship in which the greater person, the suzerain, receives all the benefits from the vassal. So most often it requires allegiance from the vassal to continue to pledge their allegiance to the suzerain… But there is a benefit for the vassal and that is the suzerain will in turn come to its rescue whenever there is any conquering army or invading army that is in their presence, and so they had that kind of mutual protective relationship there as well. [Dr. Daniel L. Kim]

You know, we think in terms of kings as being oftentimes tyrants and wealthy overlords who oppress their citizens. But in reality, kingship in the ancient Near Eastern context of the time of Jesus and before was largely grounded in the concept of covenant. So we have evidence of treaties, ancient treaties, in which a king, or an overlord, or what's called suzerain would then enter into an agreement with some people who become essentially his servants or his vassals, and they define the relationship such that the overlord, the suzerain, defines a set of terms by which a relationship can be maintained, and he'd say something like this: "I will offer you protection, I will offer you prosperity, I will offer you identity in exchange for your participation with me by sharing a portion of your crops, by giving me your allegiance and by not forming allegiances with other kings or overlords." And so it tended to be a very mutual sort of a circumstance in one sense. And if we begin to think about kingship and the nature of covenant in terms of this kind of an agreement, then what we find is that various portions of the Old Testament seem to conform very precisely with the exact elements of these suzerain treaties. [Mr. Bradley T. Johnson]

We'll look at God's kingdom administration in three main ways. First, we'll note the significance of covenant representatives. Second, we'll see how God's covenants focused on appropriate policies for God's kingdom. And third, we'll point out how God administered his kingdom through the organic development of his covenant policies. Let's look first at God's covenant representatives.

Covenant Representatives

As we've already noted, ancient suzerains administered their kingdoms by making treaties with lesser kings or vassals. These vassal kings represented their nations and managed their kingdoms in submission to the suzerain. In a similar way, God administers his kingdom by making covenants through men whom he chose to represent his covenant people.

To see what we mean, we'll see first how God chose covenant representatives in the Old Testament. And then we'll look at the new covenant. Let's begin with the Old Testament.

Old Testament

It isn't difficult to see that God chose covenant representatives in Old Testament times. Genesis 1–3 and Hosea 6:7 both indicate that God made the first biblical covenant with Adam. Genesis 6:18 and Genesis 9:9-17 refer to God's covenant with Noah. And in Genesis 15–17, God made a covenant with Abraham. Exodus 19–24 indicate that God chose Moses as his covenant representative. And finally, passages like Psalms 89 and 132 refer to God's covenant with David.

God dealt with each of these men differently as he made his covenants. But all of them represented others before God in the judgments of God's heavenly royal court. The covenants with Adam and Noah may be called "universal covenants" because Adam and Noah represented all human beings as God's covenant people. The covenants with Abraham, Moses and David may be described as "national covenants." In these covenants, these men represented the nation of Israel and the Gentiles adopted into Israel as covenant people.

Keeping the covenant representatives of the Old Testament in mind, let's see how God administered the new covenant through a covenant representative.

New Covenant

The New Testament repeatedly identifies Christ as the new covenant representative. God engaged him in special ways on behalf of his church — every Jew and Gentile that God identifies with Christ. As we read in Hebrews 9:15:

Christ is the mediator of a new covenant, that those who are called may receive the promised eternal inheritance (Hebrews 9:15).

Similar teachings appear in passages like Romans 8:34 and 1 Timothy 2:5-6.

The fact that Christ is God's chosen covenant representative for the church helps us understand one of the most important characteristics of New Testament theology. As many biblical interpreters have noted, New Testament theology is "Christocentric." In other words, every facet of New Testament theology is closely tied to the person and work of Christ. But why is this true? For instance, why does the New Testament teach that we must believe in Jesus for salvation? Why pray and show kindness in the name of Jesus? Why is the church called "the body of Christ"? The answer is clear. Christ plays this central role in New Testament theology because God administers every dimension of life in the new covenant through Christ as the representative of the church. To overlook this feature of New Testament theology is to miss one of its most crucial characteristics.

Having seen that God administered his kingdom through covenant representatives, and specifically through Christ in the new covenant, we should turn to a second feature of God's kingdom administration: the appropriate policies that biblical covenants established for different periods of biblical history.

Appropriate Policies

All ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties had elements in common, but they were also different in many ways. This was because each individual treaty addressed specific issues that were pertinent for each international relationship. In much the same way, all of God's covenants had much in common, but each covenant's policies were designed for specific issues that were important at different stages of biblical history.

To see how the policies of God's covenants were appropriate for different historical stages, we'll look once again at Old Testament covenants, and then at the policies of the new covenant. Let's consider first Old Testament covenant policies.

Old Testament

A cursory reading of the terms of Old Testament covenants reveals a focus on policies that were relevant for particular stages of God's kingdom.

God's covenant with Adam may rightly be called the "covenant of foundations." It emphasized the goals of God's kingdom and the role of human beings in his kingdom before and after sin entered the world.

After the flood, God made a covenant with Noah that we may call the "covenant of stability." This covenant focused on nature's stability as the secure environment within which sinful humanity could serve God's kingdom purposes.

We may refer to Abraham's covenant as the "covenant of Israel's election." It focused on the privileges and responsibilities of Israel as God's chosen people.

The covenant with Moses is often called the "covenant of law" because it focused on God's law as he unified the tribes of Israel into a nation. With this covenant, God led the people of Israel toward their promised homeland.

And finally, we can regard David's covenant as the "covenant of kingship." This covenant established Israel as a bona fide kingdom and emphasized how David's royal dynasty was to lead Israel in kingdom service.

When we consider the appropriate policies established by covenants in the Old Testament, it shouldn't surprise us to find that the new covenant also established kingdom policies that were appropriate for the new covenant age.

New Covenant

The new covenant comes in the last period of biblical history — after God's covenants with Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and David. And for this reason, the new covenant may be described as the "covenant of fulfillment." As such, it established policies that were designed to reverse the failures of the past and complete or fulfill God's kingdom purposes in Christ.

The new covenant is mentioned in Scripture for the first time in Jeremiah 31:31 where we read these words:

"The days are coming," declares the Lord, "when I will make a new covenant with the people of Israel and with the people of Judah" (Jeremiah 31:31).

In the larger context of this verse, the phrase "The days are coming" refers to the time after the end of Israel's exile. As we saw in a previous lesson, the message of the Christian good news — or "gospel" — was that God's kingdom would reach its final, worldwide victory after Israel's exile had ended. So, from the first mention of the new covenant, we see its association with the victorious fulfillment of God's kingdom.

For this reason, in Jeremiah 31:33-34 God revealed the policies of the new covenant, policies that were appropriate for this last stage of the kingdom in Christ. Listen to what God said:

This is the covenant I will make with the people of Israel after that time … I will put my law in their minds and write it on their hearts. I will be their God, and they will be my people. No longer will they teach their neighbor, or say to one another, "Know the Lord," because they will all know me, from the least of them to the greatest … For I will forgive their wickedness and will remember their sins no more (Jeremiah 31:33-34).

Notice in this passage that the new covenant will bring God's kingdom to its ultimate end when "[God] will forgive [his people's] wickedness and will remember their sins no more." In this time of final, eternal blessings for God's people, "[He] will put [his] law in their minds and write it on their hearts." In fact, God promised to make this true for every person in the new covenant. As he put it, "they will all know me, from the least of them to the greatest."

Now in passages like Deuteronomy 10:16 and Jeremiah 4:4, God frequently called the nation of Israel to move beyond their outward association with his covenants and to circumcise their hearts. In other words, they were to love him deeply by writing his law on their hearts. But in the policies of the new covenant age, God promised to intervene in such a way that this would be a reality for all of his covenant people.

After Jesus' resurrection and ascension, the shape of the kingdom of God remained the same in that God rules over his people in his place, but what that looked like changed entirely. The most significant thing from Jesus sitting at God's right hand is — as the apostle Peter preaches on the day of Pentecost in Acts 2 — he has poured out his Holy Spirit upon his people as was prophesied in the book of Joel. And the indwelling of the Spirit in Jews, and — to their surprise and, at first, kind of shock — also Gentiles, is indication that God's kingdom is no longer going to be constituted of the people of Israel, the human descendants of Abraham, but those who are descendants of Abraham by faith, as the apostle Paul says in Romans 4. So, God's kingdom is constituted of people from every tribe, nation and language; whoever has faith in Christ will receive the Spirit, and whoever has the Spirit has God living and ruling in their lives. [Dr. Constantine R. Campbell]

As we saw in our preceding lesson, Jesus taught that the new covenant age would unfold over time in three stages. First, its inauguration came with Christ's first advent. In this stage, Christ fulfilled many, but not all of the expectations of the new covenant. Then, in the continuation, the new covenant age will continue for an indefinite period of time through the history of the church. In this stage, Jesus fulfills many more, but still not all of the expectations of the new covenant. And finally, the new covenant age will reach its consummation at Christ's second advent when every expectation will be completely fulfilled.

This threefold fulfillment of the new covenant helps us recognize a second basic characteristic of New Testament theology. Not only was it Christocentric. New Testament theology was also devoted to explaining the policies of the new covenant as it unfolded in these three stages.

In effect, New Testament authors had to spend their time adjusting expectations for life in the new covenant. For instance, unlike the expectations created by Jeremiah 31, passages like Matthew 6:12 and 1 John 1:9 explain that followers of Christ still need to ask for forgiveness because they still violate the law of God. We also see in passages like 2 Corinthians 11:13 and Galatians 2:4 that false believers remain among true believers in the new covenant church. How were these and other factors affected by the unfolding of new covenant policies? In one way or another, every dimension of New Testament theology was devoted to answering this question.

Now that we've seen how God administered his kingdom through covenant representatives and historically appropriate policies, we should explore the organic development of policies in biblical covenants.

Organic Development

When we speak of covenant policies developing organically, we have in mind something like the growth of a tree. A tree changes as it grows from seed to full maturity, but it still remains the same organism. We can look at Old Testament covenants in much the same way. Each Old Testament covenant had different covenant representatives and focused on policies that were appropriate for a particular time in history. But like a tree, there was organic unity despite these changes.

We'll look at the organic development of God's covenants, first in the Old Testament. Then we'll consider the organic development from the Old Testament to the new covenant. Let's begin with the Old Testament covenants.

Old Testament

We can see the organic development of Old Testament covenants when we keep in mind how the policies of covenants continued in force throughout Old Testament history. For example, from the time of Adam, God established that the human race, as his image, would spread his kingdom throughout the earth. This policy developed over time, but it was never utterly discarded.

From the time of Noah, God established the stability of nature as a secure place for God's fallen images to serve his kingdom purposes. This administrative policy changed in various ways with later covenants, but God never cast it aside.

From the time of Abraham, Israel was given special privileges and responsibilities as God's chosen people. This special role in history developed with the addition of more covenants, but it never disappeared from God's kingdom administration.

From the time of Moses, the Law served as the guide for Israel. This Law was to be applied differently as other covenants were added, but it was never nullified.

And from the time of David, David's royal dynasty has led God's people in their kingdom service. Although this leadership changed with the new covenant and the kingship of Jesus, it was not set aside.

The pattern of organic development that we see in the Old Testament continued with the new covenant in Christ. It too developed organically from earlier covenants.

New Covenant

Let's look again at Jeremiah 31:31 where God said:

I will make a new covenant with the people of Israel and with the people of Judah (Jeremiah 31:31).

All too often, Christians have taken the expression "new covenant" to mean that the new covenant is entirely new, disconnected from earlier covenants in the Bible. It's important to know, however, that the word "new" translates the Hebrew term chadash. Passages like Isaiah 61:4, Ezekiel 36:26 and Job 29:20 make it clear that this term, and its associated verbal forms, did not mean "utterly new." Rather, this family of terms meant "renewed," "renovated," "rebuilt," or "refreshed."

This outlook is supported by the fact that God said the new covenant will be made "with the people of Israel and with the people of Judah." In other words, the new covenant is a renewed national covenant with the descendants of Abraham and the Gentiles adopted into his family after Israel's exile ended.

Of course, like each Old Testament covenant before it, the new covenant established policies that were appropriate for its place in history. These new policies were revealed through Christ and through his apostles and prophets. But like each Old Testament covenant, the new covenant renewed, rebuilt, renovated or refreshed the policies that God had established in previous covenant administrations.

When we think of the kingdom of God across the canon of Scripture and across redemptive history, there's changes in the administration of it as you work through the biblical covenants and reach their culmination in Christ. So, for instance, particularly in the Old Testament, as God brings his salvific plan through the nation of Israel into the old covenant, he's working primarily with a nation, he's working primarily in terms of a theocracy, a visible representation in terms of that nation where through them they will bring about the coming of the Messiah, the coming of the Lord Jesus. And you see a lot of the administration of that kingdom tied to them in a particular place, location, land, under particular rule and government and so on. And then as you think of its fulfillment in Christ, as you bring the kingdom to pass in the new covenant, there are some changes. Christ obviously is the King. He is the one who fulfills the type and shadows of the Old Testament. He fulfills the role of David and Moses. And he's the one who in his life and death and resurrection inaugurates the kingdom, brings God's saving reign to this world, and then brings about an international community — what we call the church, the one new man, Jew and Gentile together — so that he now rules in and through the church… It is the spiritual rule and reign of Christ through his people as men and women and boys and girls come to faith and repentance. As they believe, they enter that kingdom. The saving rule of God comes to them. That kingdom now is international where the rule of God now brings into it a people that come from every tribe, nation, people and tongue. And it shows itself in the local church where there's a kind of theocracy there where Christ rules his people in the local church, but not exactly the same way as it was under the nation of Israel of old. [Dr. Stephen T. Wellum]

So, when we think about God's administration of his kingdom and how it might change, we surely don't want to think of him as a kind of ancient bureaucrat trying to think up a new organizational chart because the first one didn't work out, so he kind of has "plan B." It simply can't be that. His purposes have to be consistent. So, it's best, I think, to assume that his operating principles are going to be relatively similar and then discern what changes might have been instituted. In this case, I think that fact that Jesus is no longer there is important so that the Spirit comes, so that the church can be empowered not just to center in on the physical Jesus in a given location but is free to disperse with the Spirit of Jesus to bring his message, to bring his mission to the whole world. Now, there is this shift in covenants where what had previously been operative under the flesh is now empowered by the Spirit so that the goal of the old covenant — loving God with all your heart, mind, and soul, and strength, and loving your neighbor as yourself — the believers are now empowered to do that. [Dr. Sean McDonough]

These organic developments between Old Testament covenants and the new covenant provide us with a third crucial perspective on New Testament theology. In addition to being Christocentric and focused on policies that were appropriate for the threefold unfolding of Christ's kingdom, New Testament theology was based on Old Testament theology.

At its core, New Testament theology was not a new faith. Instead, New Testament authors applied the teachings of the Old Testament in the light of God's revelation in Christ. This is why the New Testament is relatively small. It assumed the abiding validity of the Old Testament. This is also why New Testament authors appealed to the Old Testament hundreds of times to support their theological perspectives. So, when we say that New Testament theology is new covenant theology, we don't mean that it's somehow divorced from the Old Testament. On the contrary, every dimension of New Testament theology incorporates and builds on the theology of the Old Testament.

So far in our lesson on the new covenant, we've explored God's kingdom administration. Now we should turn to our second major topic in this lesson: the dynamics of interaction between God and his people in the new covenant.

DYNAMICS OF INTERACTION

New Testament authors described the interactions between God and his covenant people in countless ways. They referred to God's grace as well as his wrath. They demanded obedience and warned against disobedience. They described how God protects some from harm and how he calls others to suffer. These and many other direct and indirect references to interactions between God and his people raise some important questions. What theological outlooks undergirded this variety? How did New Testament authors make sense of it all? How did they approach the dynamics of divine and human interaction?

Once again, we'll start with the backdrop of ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties. In general terms, these treaties focused on three features of the interactions between greater and lesser kings. First, greater kings always claimed that they showed benevolence to their vassals. Second, greater kings also stipulated certain ways in which their vassals were to prove their loyalty. And third, greater kings spelled out the consequences of blessings and curses that vassals could expect for obedience and disobedience. Now, we need to say that greater kings always reserved the right to enforce the terms of their covenants as they saw fit. But in general, benevolence, loyalty and consequences formed the basic principles by which these treaty relationships were governed.

And as we're about to see, the same elements appear in the dynamics of divine and human interactions in biblical covenants. We need to keep in mind that, as the supreme King, God was the one who determined how the dynamics of his covenants would come to fruition. And he did this according to his own incomparable wisdom, not according to the standards of human expectations. This is why the Scriptures explain that God's interactions with his people are often beyond human comprehension. But as passages like Deuteronomy 29:29, Isaiah 55:8-9, a number of Psalms, and whole books like Job and Ecclesiastes remind us, the ways God implemented these covenant dynamics were always good and wise.

We'll explore the dynamics of interaction between God and people by first noting God's divine benevolence to his people. Second, we'll see how biblical covenants involved tests of loyalty for God's covenant people. And third, we'll address the consequences of blessings and curses for obedience and disobedience. Let's begin with divine benevolence.

Divine Benevolence

We'll look at the element of divine benevolence in both Old Testament covenants and in the new covenant. Let's consider first divine benevolence in Old Testament covenants.

Old Testament

The Old Testament makes it abundantly clear that God's benevolence, or kindness, both initiated and sustained the relationships established by his covenants. To begin with, God showed divine benevolence to Adam as his covenant representative in the covenant of foundations. Before Adam's fall into sin, God granted kindness to Adam by creating the Garden of Eden and placing him there as God's image. And he also poured out saving grace on our first parents, Adam and Eve, after their fall into sin. Additionally, Adam represented all of humanity in the court of God. So, the kindnesses God showed to Adam were passed on to the covenant people he represented. In one way or another God continued to show common grace to all people, including unbelievers. And to true believers, like Abel, Seth and many others, God also showed saving grace.

Throughout his lifetime, Noah also received divine benevolence — both common grace and saving grace — as God's covenant representative in the covenant of stability. And, just as in Adam's covenant, the kindnesses God showed Noah were also passed on to the covenant people Noah represented: all human beings. In a variety of ways, God showed all people his common grace. And to true believers, especially in the lineage of Shem, God also displayed saving grace.

Abraham also experienced the divine benevolence of common and saving grace as God's covenant representative in the covenant of Israel's election. The kindnesses God showed Abraham were also shown to the covenant people he represented: Israelites, and Gentiles who would be adopted into Israel. As he saw fit, God displayed common grace to the people of this covenant, including unbelievers like Esau. But God also poured out his saving grace on faithful figures like Jacob, Joseph and many others.

As the stories of Moses' life tell us, God showed the divine benevolence of common and saving grace in unique ways to Moses himself as the covenant representative of the covenant of law. And the kindnesses God showed to Moses were passed on to those he represented: the nation of Israel and those adopted into Israel. All Israelites benefited from God's common grace, even those who did not have saving faith. And God also showed his saving grace to many who were in Israel and adopted into Israel.

Last of all, David received the divine benevolence of common and saving grace in special ways as God's chosen covenant representative in the covenant of kingship. And the kindnesses God showed to David were passed on to the covenant people he represented: his royal sons, the nation of Israel and all Gentiles adopted into Israel. According to God's inscrutable wisdom, they all experienced common grace, including unbelievers in Israel. But true believers in Israel also received God's saving grace.

God's divine benevolence to his people through the Old Testament covenants set the stage for the ways God's benevolence influenced the dynamics of the new covenant as well.

New Covenant

In the first place, the New Testament draws attention to God's benevolence toward Christ, the new covenant representative. We should be clear that, like Adam before the fall into sin, Jesus never needed mercy, forgiveness or saving grace from God. Even so, passages like Matthew 3:16-17; Matthew 12:18; and Luke 3:22 indicate that during the inauguration of his kingdom, the Father anointed Jesus with his Spirit to empower him in his service. In fact, according to Romans 8:11, it was by the power of the Holy Spirit that the Father raised Jesus from the dead. Moreover, according to Psalm 2:4-6; Matthew 28:18; and Acts 2:31-33, the Father's benevolence toward Jesus lifted him to his current position of authority and power during the continuation of his kingdom. And this kindness will lead to the privileges and glory Christ will receive at the consummation of his kingdom.

In the second place, the New Testament also focuses on what Christian theologians often call "union with Christ." This teaching makes it clear that God's benevolence to Christ also impacts the church, the covenant people he represents.

Believers' union with Christ is twofold. On the one side, we are "in Christ." This means that because Christ is our covenant representative, the people of the new covenant are identified with Christ in God's heavenly court. So, in many ways, what is true of Christ is counted as true for all those he represents in the court of God. This is what Paul had in mind when he said in Ephesians 1:13:

And you also were included in Christ when you heard the word of truth, the gospel of your salvation (Ephesians 1:13).

But on the other side, the New Testament doesn't just speak about believers being "in Christ." It also speaks of "Christ in us." That is, Christ is present and at work within believers through the Holy Spirit in our day-to-day experiences on earth. Listen to Romans 8:10-11:

If Christ is in you, your body is dead because of sin, yet your spirit is alive because of righteousness. And if the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead is living in you, he … will also give life to your mortal bodies through his Spirit, who lives in you (Romans 8:10-11).

As this passage indicates, although New Testament authors acknowledged that the church is identified with Christ in heaven, they also knew that the new covenant age had not yet reached its consummation. As a result, life in the new covenant now is different from what it will be when Christ returns. For instance, now God's new covenant people continue to sin. Moreover, false believers — those without saving faith — remain in the visible church alongside true believers. Only at the consummation will the work of Christ in us be completed.

For this reason, the New Testament teaches that, prior to Christ's return, God shows common grace to all people in the visible church, including false believers. In fact, passages like John 15:1-6 and Hebrews 6:4-6 illustrate that although unbelievers often experience great temporary mercies from God, they don't receive saving grace. But at the same time, God has shown saving grace to true believers even now. It's no wonder, then, that every facet of New Testament theology is cast in terms of divine benevolence.

In both the Old and the New Testaments we see that the Lord declares that he is kind to all mankind, to both the good and the bad, the just and the unjust, to those who are his children and those who are not. The Lord is kind in the following way: In the first place, he does not destroy us immediately despite all of us being sinners. He allows us to live by his grace. In the second place, he gives us the blessing of rain, and rain falls on both the farms of the wicked and the righteous. We are also told that the sun makes the plants grow and gives life to the righteous and the unrighteous. This means that God is kind to all creatures, good and bad. And that he gives us all the opportunity to recognize who he is. He tells us that through his mercy, the Lord gives those who do not follow him or even deny him the opportunity to listen to his message, to study his Word and to be saved. So the Lord is kind even to those who deny his existence. And to those who are his, he promises to always be there and to bless them forever. [Dr. Alvin Padilla, translation]

As Paul put it in Ephesians 2:8:

For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith — and this is not from yourselves, it is the gift of God (Ephesians 2:8).

Now that we've seen how the dynamics of interaction between God and people involves the display of divine benevolence, we should look at how life in covenant with God also entails tests of loyalty. These requirements of obedience reveal the condition of the hearts of those in covenant with God.

Tests of Loyalty

We should mention here that in the twentieth century many scholars began to compare biblical covenants with another group of ancient Near Eastern texts, often called "royal grants." In these grants, a suzerain granted benefits to a vassal or a subject. Early research led many to conclude that there were no obligations or requirements, no tests of loyalty, for the one who received the grant. And, as a result, a number of biblical interpreters suggested that some biblical covenants did not require loyalty from God's people. But, more recent research has pointed in the opposite direction. We now know that even royal grants required loyal service from the recipients. So, we shouldn't be surprised when Scripture tells us that God tested the loyalty of his people in every biblical covenant, including the new covenant.

When we say that God tests our loyalty as part of life in the new covenant, we need to avoid some serious misunderstandings. First, throughout the Bible, no sinner has ever earned salvation by good works. We'll never reach the perfection needed to receive God's eternal blessings by our own efforts. Secondly, every good work that we perform is made possible by the grace of God at work within us. We don't accomplish any good work apart from the mercy of God and the power of his Spirit. And thirdly, we still need to realize that God has always called his covenant people to obedience. In both the Old and New Testaments, God tested or proved the true condition of his peoples' hearts through their responses to his commands.

What I want all believers in Christ to know is that the personal relationship with God did not begin in the New Testament. It was a fulfilling of a longtime "I will be their God and they will be my people." That is a formula from the very beginning, you know, from the Garden of Eden, from Genesis 12, from the making of a covenant people. And so, inward devotion is the genesis of obedience. It is not the result of obedience. It is not aside from obedience… We obey God because he has loved us, because he has engaged us, because he has formed us, because he has been with us through every valley, through every wilderness, through every victory. And so, obedience is out of a relationship and not out of a regulation. [Dr. Joel C. Hunter]

To see what we mean, we'll summarize how tests of loyalty appear in Old Testament covenants. Then we'll look at tests of loyalty in the new covenant. Let's begin with the Old Testament.

Old Testament

Everyone familiar with the Bible knows that God tested Adam as God's covenant representative through his directives in the Garden of Eden. And we also know that God called for the loyalty of his covenant people in Adam: the entire human race.

Noah also was tested by God's directives as his covenant representative both before and after the flood. And the Scriptures indicate that God continued to test the hearts of his covenant people in Noah — again, the entire human race.

The stories of Abraham's life illustrate how God tested the patriarch's loyalty in a number of ways as his covenant representative. As just one example, Genesis 22:1-19 tells us explicitly that God tested Abraham when he commanded him to sacrifice his son Isaac. In Genesis 22:12, the angel of the Lord said to Abraham:

Now I know that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son (Genesis 22:12).

We can see in this passage why God commanded Abraham. He tested him to prove the true condition of his heart.

In a similar way, the Scriptures teach that God tested the loyalty of his covenant people in Abraham: the people of Israel and Gentiles adopted into Israel.

Moses was tested by God's commands throughout his life as the covenant representative of Israel. And God explicitly explained that he gave his covenant people of Israel the Law to test them. Listen to Deuteronomy 8:2 where Moses told the people:

The Lord your God led you all the way in the desert these forty years, to humble you and to test you in order to know what was in your heart, whether or not you would keep his commands (Deuteronomy 8:2).

In much the same way, the stories of David's life indicate that God tested David's loyalty as the royal covenant representative of Israel. And as the rest of the Old Testament illustrates repeatedly, God continued to test his covenant people, the sons of David and the nation of Israel, throughout their generations.

Having mentioned God's tests of loyalty in Old Testament covenants, now let's explore the way God tests his people's loyalty in the new covenant.

New Covenant

Now, as we've seen, God's grace has been poured out in the new covenant as never before in biblical history. Yet, it's also apparent that the New Testament has countless commands and directives from God. Why is this true? Well, just as in the Old Testament covenants, the new covenant also requires tests of loyalty.

For this reason, the New Testament gives a great deal of attention to Christ's loyalty as the new covenant representative. It tells us that during the inauguration of the kingdom, Jesus passed every test of loyalty that God required of him. In Hebrews 4:15 we read:

We have one who has been tempted in every way, just as we are — yet was without sin (Hebrews 4:15).

And listen to Philippians 2:8 where Paul referred to Christ's remarkable obedience:

Being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death — even death on a cross! (Philippians 2:8).

In New Testament theology, the height of Jesus' loyal service to God was his voluntary death on the cross. But why was this act of obedience so significant?

From the time sin entered the world, God made temporary provisions for the sins of his covenant people through the blood of animal sacrifices. But as Hebrews 10:1-14 teaches, these sacrifices were unable to secure the final, permanent forgiveness of God's victorious kingdom. And so, as Israel's exile approached, God revealed in Isaiah 53:1-12, that he required the voluntary death of the servant of the Lord, the Messiah, as atonement for the sins of his people. By his death, the royal covenant representative would bring God's people into the glories of his eternal victorious kingdom. Jesus fulfilled this role in the inauguration when he voluntarily submitted to death on the cross. We see this in passages like Matthew 8:17; Acts 8:32-33; Romans 6:10; and 1 Peter 2:22-25. By passing this test of loyalty as the new covenant representative, Jesus provided permanent atonement and eternal forgiveness to all who believe in him.

In addition to Jesus' death on the cross, passages like Hebrews 8:1-2 also point out that Christ, as the son of David, serves obediently in heaven throughout the continuation of his kingdom. And 1 Corinthians 15:24 teaches that when Christ returns in glory at the consummation, he will hand the kingdom to God the Father as an act of humble service.

Now, as much as New Testament theology emphasizes Christ's perfect loyalty as the new covenant representative, it also stresses that tests of loyalty are still in effect for the church, the people of the new covenant.

Once again, it helps to understand tests of loyalty for the church in terms of the church's union with Christ. On the one side, the church is "in Christ" in the sense that we're identified with him before God in his heavenly court. And according to 1 Timothy 3:16, Christ was the one who passed the test of loyalty perfectly and was vindicated when the Holy Spirit raised him from the dead. For this reason, as passages like Romans 4:23-25 teach, this legal vindication of Christ in the court of heaven is imputed to all who have saving faith in him. In Christ, true believers are judged as those who have passed the test because Christ has passed the test on our behalf. This wondrous truth about Christ in God's heavenly court is the basis for the New Testament theological perspective that protestant theologians have called "sola fide," or justification by faith alone.

On the other side, however, union with Christ also refers to the day-to-day experience of "Christ in us." While the church still exists on earth prior to Christ's return in glory, people within the church experience tests of loyalty that prove the condition of their hearts. And Christ's Spirit works within true believers to make us holy. This side of our union with Christ corresponds to the traditional protestant doctrine of sanctification, or the progressive pursuit of holiness. And Scripture teaches that testing is the way God moves us forward in sanctification. As James 1:2-3 puts it:

Consider it pure joy, my brothers, whenever you face trials of many kinds, because you know that the testing of your faith develops perseverance (James 1:2-3).

Now, once again, we must remember that during the inauguration and continuation of Christ's kingdom, the visible church, consists of both false believers and true believers. And it's through the test of loyalty that both groups reveal whether or not they have saving faith. False believers fail the test of loyalty and turn from serving Christ. By contrast, true believers, although not perfect in this life, will persevere in their loyalty to Christ through the power of the Spirit. As we read in 1 John 2:19 regarding false believers:

They went out from us, but they did not really belong to us. For if they had belonged to us, they would have remained with us; but their going showed that none of them belonged to us (1 John 2:19).

As this passage indicates, New Testament theology contains many commands from God as tests of loyalty to prove those who really belong to the body of true believers.

On the night he was betrayed, Jesus Christ launched a new covenant. And like all covenants, this one is one that involves reciprocating commitments and reciprocal obligations. And one of our chief commitments in this wonderful covenant is a commitment to the lordship of Jesus Christ, to obedience to his will and his ways, to surrender up our swords to his true lordship, and to live that out in authentic ways, both in the disposition of our hearts and our willingness to follow the heart of God into the world. But one of the things that's certainly necessary to add here is that the fulfillment of our covenant obligations today are fulfillments we live out in the power and presence of the Holy Spirit. And the Holy Spirit alters the disposition of that obedience and upgrades it well above grinding duty so that it becomes, in the language of Scripture, this covenant becomes a covenant of reciprocating delight. The one who looks over us delights in us and we in him. And it gives you some idea of why the apostle could say that the kingdom of God is not grinding duty, but righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Spirit. Some of the greatest saints have told us that this obligation that exists to be faithful and loyal to our Lord is one that we fulfill not reluctantly, but eagerly, and with all of our hearts because he has won us over. And we find him and his ways delightful. [Dr. Glen G. Scorgie]

Now that we've seen the dynamics of interaction in the new covenant in relation to God's divine benevolence and tests of loyalty, we should turn to a third element. Let's examine the consequences of blessings and curses for obedience and disobedience.

Consequences

We'll look at the consequences for obedience and disobedience in covenant with God along the lines of our earlier discussions. We'll briefly survey the Old Testament covenants and then turn to the new covenant. Let's first see the consequences of blessings and curses in the Old Testament covenants.

Old Testament

Prior to the new covenant, the consequences of both blessings and curses were crucial dimensions of God's interactions with his covenant representatives, and with his covenant people as a whole. Now, as we've already mentioned, God often implemented the terms of his covenants in ways that were beyond human understanding. So, in Scripture God often hastened, increased, lessened, delayed and even cancelled the blessings and curses of his covenants at times in ways that were beyond human comprehension. But he always did so according to his perfect wisdom and goodness.

In the covenant of foundations, God cursed Adam, his covenant representative, with suffering and death in response to his disobedience. But, we also see God's blessings to Adam. In Genesis 3:15, God promised humanity's victory over the seed of the serpent. And both this curse of death and hope of victory were passed on, as God saw fit, to the covenant people Adam represented, the human race.

In the covenant of nature's stability, the covenant representative, Noah, received blessings for his faithful service. But he also continued to face curses, such as troubles in his family after the flood. Similar blessings and curses came to future generations of humanity, the covenant people Noah represented.

In the covenant of Israel's election, Abraham also received the consequences of blessings and curses as God's covenant representative. These consequences were passed down to the covenant people of Israel and those adopted into Israel in subsequent generations.

In a similar way, in the covenant of law, Moses received God's blessings and curses in his life as the covenant representative. Additionally, Moses' law spelled out many specific blessings and curses that would come to the covenant people of Israel and Gentiles adopted into Israel.

In the covenant of kingship, David himself, as the covenant representative, received the consequences of blessings and curses as he was faithful and unfaithful. The same was true for the covenant people he represented, his royal descendants and the people of Israel and Gentiles adopted into Israel.

We've touched briefly on the consequences of blessings and curses in Old Testament covenants. These set the stage for what New Testament authors taught about the consequences of obedience and disobedience associated with the new covenant in Christ.

New Covenant

New Testament theology emphasizes that Christ, as the representative of the new covenant, experienced both God's curses and God's blessings. As Paul pointed out in Galatians 3:13, Jesus endured the curse of God for the sins of all who believe in him as he suffered death on the cross.

Now, Jesus didn't come under God's curses because of his own personal failures. He had no personal sins. But in fulfillment of Isaiah 53:1-12, he bore the judgment of God as an innocent royal substitute for the people of God in every age. By contrast, however, because of his own personal righteousness, Christ also received God's blessings. Jesus is the only human being who served God perfectly and deserved the reward of God's eternal blessings.

Listen to the connection between Christ's obedience and God's blessing in Philippians 2:8-9:

[Christ] became obedient to death — even death on a cross! Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name (Philippians 2:8-9).

In New Testament theology, Jesus' resurrection and ascension at the inauguration of the kingdom were the just reward for his perfect obedience to God. Jesus enjoys the blessing of God throughout the continuation of his kingdom as he reigns over all of creation at the right hand of the Father. And he will be blessed even more at the consummation of his kingdom when he receives his eternal inheritance of ruling over the new creation.

Now, as much as New Testament theology praises Jesus for gaining the blessing of ruling over all creation, we know that the consequences of the new covenant also impact the church, the people of the new covenant.

Once again, the New Testament doctrine of union with Christ points out two sides of this reality. On the one side, because we are "in Christ," every eternal blessing of God has already been assigned to true believers. True believers can rest confidently in the fact that they will never experience the eternal curse of God. Their eternal blessings are secure because Christ is their covenant representative.

Paul had this concept in mind when he wrote his well-known doxology in Ephesians 1:3:

Praise be to the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who has blessed us in the heavenly realms with every spiritual blessing in Christ (Ephesians 1:3).

Because we are identified with Christ in heaven, true believers have already received "every spiritual blessing." Just as Christ bore the eternal curses of God on our behalf, he also received the reward of eternal blessings from the Father on our behalf.

On the other side, however, our union with Christ means that Christ is in us. That is to say, he is at work in true believers so that they experience the consequences of obedience and disobedience in their daily lives.

Now, once again, we must remember that until Christ returns in glory, the visible church consists of both false believers and true believers. And New Testament theology explains how the consequences of blessings and curses, in this life and in eternity, apply to both of these groups.

Passages like Luke 12:45-46 and Romans 2:4-5 explain that, as false believers continue to rebel against God, the blessings they receive in this life increase God's eternal curses against them at the final judgment. And the hardships and curses they endure in this life are but foretastes of the eternal curses they will receive when Christ returns.

By contrast, true believers also receive both blessings and curses in this life. But the blessings that true believers receive in this life are foretastes of the eternal blessings that will come at the consummation of the kingdom. And for true believers, as passages like Hebrews 12:1-11 tell us, temporary hardships, or curses, are God's loving, fatherly discipline. These difficulties sanctify us and increase the eternal blessings we'll receive when Christ returns. As we read in Revelation 21:6-8, God says:

To the thirsty I will give water without cost from the spring of the water of life. Those who are victorious will inherit all this, and I will be their God and they will be my children. But the cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile, the murderers, the sexually immoral, those who practice magic arts, the idolaters and all liars — they will be consigned to the fiery lake of burning sulfur (Revelation 21:6-8).

On that day, false believers in the new covenant church will be condemned to eternal judgment. But true believers will receive their eternal inheritance in the glorious new creation.

If we want to see the blessings that God's people receive after final judgment, we would go to Revelation 21 and 22, this amazing image of the new creation at the end of the world. And I love this description of the new creation in Revelation 21 and 22, because it's not just a recapitulation of Genesis, of the Garden, it's not just a return to the Garden. It's really an escalation of the Garden. It's dynamic. It's better than Eden was. So, in Eden, Adam and Eve had a responsibility to rule under God, to tend the Garden and steward the earth. In the new creation we will too, and that's our blessing. But we will never sin. Adam and Eve had the potential to sin. In the new creation, God's people will never fall away. In Eden, Jesus wasn't there, wasn't there physically, bodily. In the new creation Jesus will be. So, the blessing that we inherit as people of God, people of the new covenant is really a new creation that's better than anything the world has ever known. [Dr. Stephen E. Witmer]

CONCLUSION

In this lesson on the new covenant in Christ, we've considered God's kingdom administration and seen how God administered his kingdom through his covenant representatives, and how he established appropriate policies as his covenants developed organically. We've also explored how the dynamics of interaction between God and his covenant people involved his divine benevolence, his tests of loyalty, and the consequences for obedience and disobedience.

As we seek to understand the New Testament more fully, we must keep in mind that the new covenant in Christ wasn't just one small part of New Testament theology. As the last of God's covenants with his people, the new covenant deeply influenced everything New Testament authors wrote. God made a solemn pact with his people in Christ through the new covenant. And the more we understand about this new covenant, the better we will be able to see the most important features of New Testament theology.